Cognitive Psychology of Memory

N. Cowan , in Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference, 2008

Sensory memory is a mental representation of how environmental events expect, sound, feel, smell and taste. It includes a long-term component useful for such activities as recognizing a color or a familiar vocalism. However, about brilliant details of sensory memory seem to fade quickly. Based on a long history of research, this affiliate examines defining characteristics of sensory memory, reasons to study it, techniques to examine it, and theories of sensory memory forgetting. This retentivity is especially important for a scientific understanding of consciousness, for an understanding of individual differences, and every bit a command in understanding conceptual aspects of retention.

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Aging: Brain Potential Measures and Reaction Time Studies

E. Golob , ... A. Starr , in Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, 2009

Sensory Memory

Sensory retentivity is a relatively automated class of memory and has a duration of several seconds. In the auditory modality sensory retention is of import for the perception of speech and diverse aspects of auditory scene perception. The mismatch negativity (MMN) is an ERP that has been extensively used to study sensory memory ( Figures one(c) and i(d) ). The MMN is elicited by a stimulus that deviates from a previously established pattern of stimuli presented sequentially. The rationale for its utilise is that sensory retentiveness can be probed by kickoff establishing a standard sensory memory representation and then presenting a stimulus that is predicted to differ from the sensory memory representation in some respect. If the MMN is elicited, information technology tin can be inferred that the deviant aspect of the stimulus was not a property of the standard stimulus representation (mismatch). It is a way to infer memory representations by defining the 'limits' of the sensory memory representation, after which a stimulus is considered different.

Studies of the MMN in normal crumbling consistently report that when the deviant stimulus differs from the standard in terms of acoustic properties such as frequency or intensity, at that place are little or no age differences. Nonetheless, if deviant stimuli differ in terms of timing, such as stimulus duration or interstimulus interval, so age differences are often evident, with smaller MMN amplitudes in older compared to young subjects.

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Sensory and Firsthand Memory

N. Cowan , in Encyclopedia of Consciousness, 2009

Sensory memory is recollection of perceptual types of how a stimulus looks, feels, sounds, etc. Immediate memory (including, but not limited to, sensory memory) is recollection of a small amount of information for a brief fourth dimension; it is used to conduct out cognitive tasks. Two primal immediate-memory mechanisms are (one) activated sensory and conceptual features from long-term memory, with a brusk time limit to this activation; and (2) the subset of activated information that is in the focus of attention, with a limit to how many items can be in focus at one time. These retentiveness mechanisms may underlie witting phenomena like the perceptual moment and the psychological present.

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Big Data Concerns in Autonomous AI Systems

James A. Crowder , John N. Carbone , in Awarding of Big Data for National Security, 2015

Sensory Memories

The sensory memory within the AIS memory organisation is memory registers in which raw, unprocessed information is ingested via AIS ecology sensors and is buffered to brainstorm initial processing. The AIS sensory retentiveness system has a large capacity to suit large quantities of perhaps disparate and diverse information from a diversity of sources ( Crowder, 2010b). Although it has large chapters, it has brusque duration. The information buffered in this sensory memory must be sorted, categorized, and turned into information fragments, metadata, contextual threads, and attributes (including emotional attributes), and then sent on to the working memory (short-term memory (STM)) for initial cognitive processing. This cognitive processing is known every bit recombinant knowledge assimilation (RNA), in which raw information content is discovered from the information domain and is decomposed, reduced, compared, contrasted, and associated into new relationship threads within a temporary working cognition domain and afterward normalized into a pedigree within the knowledge domain for future use (Crowder and Carbone, 2011b). Hence, based on the data gathered in initial sensory memory processing, cognitive perceptrons, manifested as intelligence information software agents (ISAs), are spawned equally in relative size swarms to create initial "thoughts" almost the data. Afterward, hypotheses are generated by the ISAs. The thought procedure data and ISA sensory information is and then sent to a working memory region that will alert the artificial knowledge processes inside the AIS to begin processing (Crowder and Friess, 2012) Figure 14.i illustrates the sensory memory lower ontology.

Figure 14.i. Sensory retentivity lower ontology.

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Memory

Krishnagopal Dharani , in The Biology of Thought, 2015

Brusque-Term Memory

Sensory retentiveness thus formed may end upwards in two means: it can exist registered as STM; or it may be lost from consciousness forever ( Fig. 3.4). The STM thus formed may as well end up in 2 ways information technology may pass into long-term retention; or may vanish totally. For example, when nosotros look at a number in the telephone directory earlier starting to punch, the number is temporarily stored for a few seconds and after completing the task it volition vanish from our memory (unless a conscious try is made to retrieve it, then it becomes LTM). The duration of STM storage ranges between 10 and 12 seconds. Studies have shown that a homo existence has the capacity to remember about 7±2 items at a given moment ('the magical number 7'). Information technology is common noesis that the fate of STM depends on the attention the perceiver pays – if no attending is paid the memory decays; if conscious effort is made it forms LTM. STM is acclaimed to be processed in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) (see Ch. 1, p. 11).

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A useful framework

In Fundamentals of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2013

3.3 What is not lost?

Sensory and working memory are needed even for the simplest activities. If you cannot remember the get-go of this sentence, y'all cannot understand its ending. Because a sentence takes several seconds to read, you must be belongings data for that time. Similarly, if your brain cannot store data from one visual fixation to the next, you cannot put the separate snapshots together into a whole visual scene. Finally, if you demand to swallow, but you lot tin can't keep your feeling of hunger in mind long plenty do something near it, you may go without food. All your sensory, motor, and cognitive functions need some immediate retentivity to work.

The hippocampal region continues to be an agile topic of research. Because information technology is office of the aboriginal mammalian encephalon, it has many different functions. The surrounding medial temporal lobe is also an surface area of great convergence betwixt different sense modalities.

The hippocampal regions themselves are called paleocortex, or "old cortex." While neocortex has six distinct cellular layers, paleocortex has 4 or five. In humans and other mammals, the hippocampal region is in constant dialogue with the neocortex to encode, maintain, and call back memories when needed.

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Stress, Trauma, and Memory in PTSD

J. Nursey , A.J. Phelps , in Stress: Concepts, Cognition, Emotion, and Beliefs, 2016

Sensory retention is the perception of sight, hearing, odour, taste, and impact information entering through the sensory cortices of the brain and relaying through the thalamus. Information technology lasts only milliseconds and is mostly outside conscious awareness. 27

Immediate or short-term memory is our capacity to hold a very limited amount of information in a temporary buffer for a brusque period of fourth dimension (from a few seconds to a couple of minutes). The information enters through auditory or visual channels and captures our attention. The average developed can hold betwixt seven and nine pieces of information in short-term memory before it becomes overloaded.

Working memory refers to our ability to manipulate and make use of the data held in curt-term memory, for example calculating the change yous should get back from a shopkeeper or reading and recalling a phone number while you punch. Data just stays in our working retentivity buffer for a couple of minutes. Working memory is comprised of ii parts, the phonological loop that processes verbal information and the visuospatial sketch pad that handles visual information, coordinated by a key executive system. 34 Working memory relies on a network of interconnected brain regions, still the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex plays a cardinal role in working memory.

Long-term memory refers to information that is stored over a catamenia of days, months, or years. There are ii streams of long-term retentivity—declarative and nondeclarative. Declarative or explicit memory stores facts and events that are bachelor to our conscious think. It relies on the medial temporal lobe including the hippocampus and its connections to adjacent structures such as the parahippocampal gyrus, the entorhinal cortex, and the limbic organisation to facilitate the encoding and consolidation of new data. Declarative retention can be farther broken down into two subsystems known as episodic and semantic memory.

Episodic retentivity contains memories of events and facts in our daily life, for instance what we had for dinner last night. Episodic retentivity stores the autobiographical details of our life and is always cocky-referential. Semantic memory stores knowledge that we learn nearly the globe, including things such every bit give-and-take meanings, general knowledge, rules, concepts, and customs. Semantic retentiveness involves structures such every bit the cerebellum, basal ganglia, amygdala, and the neocortex. 35

Nondeclarative or implicit memory includes behaviors, skills, and noesis learned through unconscious processes such every bit conditioning, habituation, priming, and procedural learning. Information technology is not available for conscious recall. Examples of implicit retentivity include fear conditioning and procedural retentiveness.

Emotional memory: Emotional experiences enhance both the encoding of new memories as well as their power to be retrieved. Memories associated with strong emotions are known as emotional retention. Emotional memories tin be both implicit (unconsciously encoded and retrieved) or explicit (consciously mediated). The amygdala is central to both the encoding and retrieval of emotional memories, however both the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex likewise play important roles.

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Basic psychology

Jeremy Hall , Mary E. Stewart , in Companion to Psychiatric Studies (Eighth Edition), 2010

Types of retentivity

Memory can exist broadly divided into sensory retention, working memory and long-term memory. Sensory memory consists of sensory information retained in an unprocessed form in the sensory organisation through which information technology entered. This class of memory is brusque lived (0.5–3 seconds) but has a large capacity. Sensory memory accounts for our ability to retrieve something after it was spoken, fifty-fifty if information technology was not originally the subject of attention. Sensory retention has therefore saved many marriages.

Working retentiveness is also ofttimes referred to as brusque-term memory. The latter term is, withal, often used very differently by clinicians, psychologists and researchers and therefore the term working memory is to be preferred. Working memory is a temporary shop of a subset of sensory data to which attention has been applied. It is generally considered to have its substrate in the frontal lobes and cortical areas concerned with sensory processing. Working memory has a express capacity, typically described as comprising seven plus or minus ii items, and a short elapsing of approximately 30 seconds maximum. The capacity of working memory can, notwithstanding, exist extended past the procedure of chunking, in which several items are grouped together into a single cognitive unit. For case, my telephone number consists of 7 digits. If I tell this number to someone who did not previously know it, information technology will crave all their working memory capacity to recollect the seven digits. Even so, for me this telephone number is a single cerebral unit and therefore through the process of chunking it simply occupies one item or unit in my working memory. The duration of working memory can also exist extended by the process of rehearsal in which auditory items are repeated mentally to keep them in working memory for longer than 30 seconds. This process means that when testing longer term memory it is important to provide some form of cognitive distraction between encoding and retrieval to prevent the subject field simply rehearsing the to-be-remembered items in working retentivity.

Long-term retentivity is theoretically unlimited in capacity and permanent in duration. The concept of retentiveness having unlimited capacity may seem strange, nonetheless, the capacity of human retentiveness has never clearly been exceeded (there are no examples of people being unable to call up more information due to 'overload') and there is not even evidence of asymptotic slowing of the ability to larn new memories. Long-term memory can exist divided into explicit memory and implicit memory. Explicit memories are conscious memories that can be brought to heed and described or spoken. They include episodic memory, which is the complex memory for episodes and events in one'due south life, and semantic retentivity, which is memory for facts such as the meaning of words and full general knowledge. Implicit memories are exterior conscious awareness and include memories for procedures, such how to ride a bicycle, equally well as conditioning and priming. Long-term memory involves a number of encephalon regions. The hippocampus and limbic brain regions are known to play a primal function in episodic memory, while the temporal neocortex is an of import substrate for semantic retention. Procedural memories in dissimilarity are known to depend upon the basal ganglia and associated motor circuitry.

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Evidence-Based Do with Alzheimer'due south Disease and Dementia

Morley D. Glicken DSW , in Evidence-Based Counseling and Psychotherapy for an Aging Population, 2009

15.3 Diagnosis

There are several distinct types of memory: sensory, brusk-term, working, and long-term. Sensory memory is fleeting unless nosotros pay attention to it. Short-term memory serves as a temporary property tank for things that nosotros do pay some attending to, simply it has limited storage capacity. Interference frequently disrupts short-term retentiveness. Working retentiveness is also a limited area, but information technology allows united states to hold and store information while we are processing or reasoning various steps. Long-term retentiveness, which endures for more than 30 seconds, is either declarative (involving facts and events available through witting retrieve), semantic (independent of context), or episodic (highly contextual). No one area of the encephalon is entirely responsible for memory, since this complex process involves various parts of the brain, depending on the type of memory, the emotional content, and the perceiving, processing, and analyzing necessary for the memory. The brain's nerve cells (neurons) communicate with each other, providing important transmission of signals which are responsible for circuitous tasks and processing ( www.alz.org). The firing of synapses (neurons beingness transmitted) is a function of the brain's memory process. Different synapses piece of work differently for curt- and long-term memory (National Establish on Aging, 2008.)

In Advert, the neurons are unable to connect signals due to a build upward of plaque between brain cells and tangles within brain cells. This evolution of plaque and tangles is the authentication of AD, just diagnosis has been difficult, equally the tangles are not readily evident. Early stage and early onset AD manifests itself as bug with memory, thinking, and concentration. People with Advert may likewise showroom physical and verbal outbursts, emotional distress, pacing, restlessness, hallucinations, and delusions. Advertizement is commonly diagnosed after ruling out other physical and medical causes, assessing cognitive functioning through such tests as the Mini Mental Status Test (MMSE), and various brain scans. However, the MMSE is not e'er accurate, making the definitive diagnoses of Advertizement more hard (Shiroky et al., 2007).

The diagnosis of AD is agonizing for its concluding prognosis (albeit slow) and for the multiple losses that ensue. Early onset Ad has certain genetic features, and recent developments in DNA testing (using genotype tests) may be useful in determining the existence of AD and the presence of apolipoprotein E (APOE), which is a marking for Ad (Nee et al., 2004).

Children of AD patients have a higher-than-average risk of developing dementia, suggesting a genetic predisposition (Grady, 2007). Grady also notes that studies of IQ early in life signal that people who develop AD have lower scores on early on tests than salubrious people, and that therefore AD may develop early in life and progress slowly until symptoms go more obvious, sometimes in early on mid-life. The good news is that early detection of AD and understanding risk factors may lead to therapies that irksome and even terminate brain deterioration.

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Sensational Memorability

Nelson Cowan , in Mechanisms of Sensory Working Memory, 2015

Processed Sensory Recollection

It seems to me that the field of sensory memory has ever been the source of much defoliation, largely because different procedures yield very different estimates of sensory memory. Whereas Sperling (1960) showed that there was a type of visual sensory retention lasting several hundred milliseconds, a much longer estimate of acoustic memory was obtained in a process similar to Sperling but using spatiotemporal arrays of spoken digits (Darwin et al., 1972). Characters were spoken at left, centre, and right locations concurrently in two successive temporal bursts for a full of 6 characters to exist remembered per trial. A cue indicated which spatial location to recall. The finding was that sensory data took a lot longer to decline to a plateau than was found in vision: about iv due south. On the basis of this finding, it has often been argued that sensory information lasts a lot longer in the acoustic domain than in vision.

This interpretation of Darwin et al. (1972) every bit indicating a modality difference, however, would get out no explanation for the comparable results obtained for visual and acoustic stimuli by Efron (1970a, 1970b, 1970c), and then there is a conundrum. The solution may be as follows. Results obtained by Massaro (1976) post-obit up on Darwin et al. propose that their sort of finding in the auditory domain is not comparable to what was obtained in the visual domain by Sperling. In vision, a postarray category cue (e.g., recall all letters merely not numbers in the array) cannot be used to admission a office of the sensory representation as efficiently as a postarray physical cue (e.g., recall the middle row). Yet, Massaro found that physical and category postarray cues worked equally well in audition. Darwin et al. carried out a comparable experiment with semantic cueing (their Experiment 3) but it is difficult to compare with concrete cueing considering the whole-report results in these two experiments differ essentially for some reason. Overall, I conclude, with Massaro, that the ability to use the longer memory for acoustic stimuli may make this technique incapable of demonstrating the shorter memory of the type examined past Efron and others, and that there are two phases of sensory memory in each modality, with unlike time courses and characteristics (Cowan, 1984, 1988). It notwithstanding remains to exist discussed why the longer store does not similarly interfere with the findings in the visual modality.

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